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And Lara A. Pinheiro 1, 2, José Alberto Pereira 1, 3, * , Pilar Medina 4 and Sónia A. P. Santos 5, 6, *
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Laboatório Associado para a Sustentabilidade e Tecnologia em Regiões de Montanha (SusTEC), Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Campus de Santa Apolónia, 5300-253 Bragança, Portugal
Unidad de Protección de Cultivos, Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingeniería Agronómica, Alimentaria y de Biosistemas, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Avenida Puerta de Hierro, 2, 28040 Madrid, Spain
LEAF, Connecting Environment, Environment, Agriculture and Food—Research Center, Instituto Superior de Agronomia, Universidade de Lisboa, Tapada da Ajuda, 1349-017 Lisboa, Portugal
Received: 6 September 2022 / Revised: 21 September 2022 / Accepted: 29 September 2022 / Published: 4 October 2022
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Sugars are important food sources required by adult parasitic species to improve their survival, reproductive capacity and fitness. The beneficial potential of Psyttalia concolor Szépligeti, as a biological control agent of various insect pests of fruit flies, is expected to increase when different sugar food sources are provided. The aim of this study was to measure the effects of seven sugars (glucose, fructose, sucrose, trehalose, melibose, melezitose and sorbitol) on the longevity and parasitic ability of P. concolor. Furthermore, we evaluated the effects of two types of honeydew produced by hemiptera insects present on olive trees, Saissetia oleae Olivier (Coccidae) and Euphyllura olivina (Costa) (Psyllidae) on the longevity of the parasite. Our results show a positive effect of carbohydrate consumption (monosaccharides and honeydew) on parasite survival. Female longevity increased when fed sorbitol and melibiose, while males benefited from glucose and fructose feeding, suggesting that hexose nectars are beneficial to males. Sucrose increased the percentage of hosts that did not emerge and the parasite level while melezitose significantly reduced these percentages, compared to other sugars provided. P. concolor benefited more from feeding on dew than on sugar, and this food may represent an important source of energy for the parasite. These results show the importance of specific nutrients to promote the action of P. concolor against insects.
Parasitic wasps are one important group of natural enemies of insect pests that depend on the consumption of nectar, pollen or honeydew to survive and reproduce as adults [1, 2, 3]. Adult parasites can also increase their diet by ingesting host hemolymph (host feeding strategy) [4].
Nectar is mainly composed of fast carbohydrates and high energy content. It contains mainly two hexoses (glucose and fructose) and one disaccharide (sucrose) with concentrations ranging from 7% to 70% w/w [5]. After carbohydrates, amino acids (essential, non-essential and some non-protein amino acids) are the most common components occurring in nectar [6]. Under laboratory conditions, parasites fed with flower nectar increased their longevity, reproduction (for example, it can increase reproductive time, egg maturation, attack more hosts) and feeding ability compared to starved parasites [7, 8, 9].
Honey is a sugar-rich substance produced by hemiptera insects with a specific chemical profile that depends on the honey producer and its host plant [10, 11]. In agricultural systems, where flowering plants are often not available, honey may be a significant source of carbohydrates [1].
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In that field, several studies also confirmed that parasites benefited from feeding on nectar and honey [12, 13, 14]. In addition, the positive effects of high sugar feedstuffs on the levels of fungal nutrients (sugar, glycogen and lipids) were also reported by Olson et al. [15], Lee et al. [16], Nafziger Jr. and Fadamiro [17] and Snart et al. [18]. However, nectar is not uniformly available to parasites, depending on factors such as (i) flower morphology (which may limit nectar availability), (ii) quality (e.g., concentration and composition of nectar produced by the plant), (iii) ) abundance, (iv) distribution of plants in the feeding area and (v) detection [19, 20].
The only parasitic wasp species, Psyttalia concolor (Szépligeti) (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) is a synovigenic larva-pupal koinobiont endoparasitoid of several species of Tephritidae. Individuals of this strain were collected from olives affected by the olive fly, Bactrocera oleae (Rossi) (Diptera: Tephritidae), in Tunisia, and the species was introduced in Italy as a biological control agent against the pest [21]. After that, it was used in additional versions for the biological control of B. oleae in European countries (for example, Italy, Greece, or Spain) [22] and the United States [23]. However, few practices resulted in good parasitemia rates (22-23%) [22, 24], and maintenance of P. concolor in the field was not successful. Several factors were shown to justify these results, such as the quality of the reared population or the abundance of olive fly pupae at the beginning of summer [25]. The availability of sugary foods in an agro-ecosystem can reduce the likelihood of parasites. Therefore, the adoption of strategies for the conservation of biological control, through the operation of habitats and the maintenance of land and farm borders with an adequate composition of plant species, or the use of sugar spraying, as an additional measure of delivery In addition, it can contribute to the maintenance of varieties in the field and the improvement of their efficiency [26]. In this context, the aim of this work was to study the effects of different food sources of carbohydrates on the longevity and parasitic ability of P. concolor in order to develop strategies to improve its use in future conservation and biological control programs against fruit flies. fruits. such as B. oleae or C. capitata. We hypothesize that solutions of sugar and honey, given separately, will significantly increase the longevity and parasitic ability of P. concolor.
P. concolor was cultured on Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann, 1824) (Diptera: Tephritidae) at the Plant Protection Unit, ETSIAAB-UPM, following the method described by Jacas and Viñuela [27]. Individuals of C. capitata were obtained from a breeding culture maintained in the Unit for more than 20 generations, and included from time to time new individuals collected from the field. P. concolor individuals come from the Spanish community. Both insects were reared at a temperature of 25 ± 2 °C, humidity of 75 ± 5% and a 16:8 h light: dark period. The parasites were not exposed to food or water before the experiment. C. capitata was used as a model host to test the effects of different food sources on the parasitism ability of P. concolor once it was easily established in the laboratory.
Seven types of sugars were tested each: two monosaccharides, D(+)-Glucose 1-hydrate (PanReac AppliChem, Barcelona, Spain) and D(+)-Fructose> 99% (ACROS Organics, Geel, Belgium) , three disaccharides, (D+)-Sucrose > 99% (ACROS Organics, Geel, Belgium), D(+)-Trehalose dihydrate > 99% (ACROS Organics, Geel Belgium) and Melibiose > 98% (Sigma-Aldrich, Madrid, Spain), one trisaccharide, D(+)-Melezitose monohydrate 99% (ACROS Organics, Geel Belgium), and one sugar alcohol, Sorbitol > 99.5% (Sigma-Aldrich, Madrid, Spain). These sugars were selected based on the main described compounds of plant-derived sugars (floral nectars and honey – see Wäckers [7]). The concentration used for all sugar solutions was 1 M, which represents the maximum amount of sugar found in flower nectar and honeydew [7].
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In addition, two types of honey are removed by two secondary pests of olive trees, the black scale, Saissetia oleae (Olivier) (Hemiptera: Coccidae), and the olive psyllid, Euphyllura olivina (Costa) (Hemiptera: Psyllidae), over life long. of P. concolor were tested. S. oleae and E. olivina were grown on olive trees of two different years, stored, in pots, in a climatic chamber at 24 ± 1 °C, 70 ± 5% relative humidity (RH) and image 4 :8 p.m. (L:D) at the School of Agriculture, Polytechnic Institute of Bragança. Honey released by each insect species was collected by placing a piece of Parafilm.
, cut into squares (5 cm × 5 cm), under heavily infested olive branches, for 24 hours. After that period, each piece of Parafilm
For longevity experiments, five newly emerged females (<24 h) and five males of P. concolor were placed in a plexiglass cage (12 cm in diameter × 5 cm.
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